The search continues for optimal markers that can be utilized to improve bladder cancer detection and to predict disease recurrence. Although no single marker has yet replaced the need to perform cystoscopy and urine cytology, many tests have been evaluated and are being developed. In the future, these promising markers may be incorporated into standard practice to address the challenge of screening in addition to long-term surveillance of patients who have or are at risk for developing bladder cancer.

Introduction: Nonmuscle invasive bladder cancer (NMIBC) is the most common presentation of bladder cancer and is often treatable with endoscopic resection and intravesical therapies. Cystoscopy and urine cytology are the gold standard in diagnosis and surveillance but are limited by their sensitivity in some situations. We seek to provide an overview of recent additions to the diagnostic armamentarium for urologists treating this disease. Methods: Articles were identified through a literature review of articles obtained through PubMed searches including the terms “bladder cancer”and various diagnostic techniques described in the article. Results: A variety of urinary biomarkers are available to assist the diagnosis and management of patients with NMIBC. Many have improved sensitivity over urine cytology, but less specificity. There are certain situations in which this has proved valuable, but as yet these are not part of the standard guidelines for NMIBC. Fluorescence cystoscopy has level 1 evidence demonstrating increased rates of tumor detection and prolonged recurrence-free survival when utilized for transurethral resection. Other technologies seeking to enhance cystoscopy, such as narrow band imaging, confocal laser endomicroscopy, and optical coherence tomography are still under evaluation. Conclusions: A variety of urine biomarker and adjunctive endoscopic technologies have been developed to assist the management of NMIBC. While some, such as fluorescence cystoscopy, have demonstrated a definite benefit in this disease, others are still finding their place in the diagnosis and treatment of this disease. Future studies should shed light on how these can be incorporated to improve outcomes in NMIBC.

Introduction: Non-muscle invasive bladder cancer (NMIBC) comprises about 70% of all newly diagnosed bladder cancer, and includes tumors with stage Ta, T1 and carcinoma in situ (CIS.) Since, NMIBC patients with progression to muscle-invasive disease tend to have worse prognosis than with patients with primary muscle-invasive disease, there is a need to significantly improve risk stratification and earlier definitive treatment for high-risk NMIBC. Materials and Methods: A detailed Medline search was performed to identify all publications on the topic of prognostic factors and risk predictions for superficial bladder cancer/NMIBC. The manuscripts were reviewed to identify variables that could predict recurrence and progression. Results: The most important prognostic factor for progression is grade of tumor. T category, tumor size, number of tumors, concurrent CIS, intravesical therapy, response to bacillus Calmette–Guerin at 3- or 6-month follow-up, prior recurrence rate, age, gender, lymphovascular invasion and depth of lamina propria invasion are other important clinical and pathological parameters to predict recurrence and progression in patients with NMIBC. The European Organization for Research and Treatment of Cancer (EORTC) and the Spanish Club UrológicoEspañol de Tratamiento Oncológico (CUETO) risk tables are the two best-established predictive models for recurrence and progression risk calculation, although they tend to overestimate risk and have poor discrimination for prognostic outcomes in external validation. Molecular biomarkers such as Ki-67, FGFR3 and p53 appear to be promising in predicting recurrence and progression but need further validation prior to using them in clinical practice. Conclusion: EORTC and CUETO risk tables are the two best-established models to predict recurrence and progression in patients with NMIBC though they tend to overestimate risk and have poor discrimination for prognostic outcomes in external validation. Future research should focus on enhancing the predictive accuracy of risk assessment tools by incorporating additional prognostic factors such as depth of lamina propria invasion and molecular biomarkers after rigorous validation in multi-institutional cohorts.

Non-muscle-invasive bladder cancer (NMIBC) is characterized by a tendency for recurrence and capacity for progression. Intravesical instillation therapy has been employed in various clinical settings, which are summarized within this review. Several chemotherapeutic agents have shown clinical efficacy in reducing recurrence rates in the post-transurethral resection of bladder tumor (TURBT) setting, including mitomycin C (MMC), doxorubicin, and epirubicin. Mounting evidence also supports the use of intravesical MMC following nephroureterectomy to reduce later urothelial bladder recurrence. In the adjuvant setting, bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) immunotherapy is an established first-line agent in the management of carcinoma in situ (CIS) and high-grade non muscle invasive urothelial carcinoma (UC). Among high and intermediate-risk patients (based on tumor grade, size, and focality) improvements in disease-free intervals have been seen with adjunctive administration of MMC prior to scheduled BCG dosing. Following failure of first-line intravesical therapy, gemcitabine and valrubicin have demonstrated modest activity, though valrubicin remains the only agent currently Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-approved for the treatment of BCG-refractory CIS. Techniques to optimize intravesical chemotherapy delivery have also been explored including pharmacokinetic methods such as urinary alkalization and voluntary dehydration. Chemohyperthermia and electromotive instillation have been associated with improved freedom from recurrence intervals but may be associated with increased urinary toxicity. Improvements in therapeutic selection may be heralded by novel opportunities for genomic profiling and refinements in clinical risk stratification.

Introduction: Nonmuscle invasive urothelial cell carcinoma is the most frequent malignancy of the urinary bladder. The high recurrence rate (up to 80%) and risk of progression (up to 30%) reflect the need for long-term follow-up and sometimes multiple interventions. To reduce the rate of recurrences and tumor progression, intravesical immunotherapy, especially the use of Bacille Calmette-Guerin (BCG), represents the gold standard adjuvant treatment of high-risk nonmuscle invasive bladder cancer (NMIBC). This article reviews the role of BCG therapy and several promising new immunotherapeutic approaches such as mycobacterium phlei cell wall-nucleic acid complex, interleukin-10 (IL-10) antibody, vaccine-based therapy, alpha-emitter therapy, and photodynamic therapy checkpoint inhibitors. Methods: A systematic literature review was performed using the terms (immunotherapy, NMIBC, BCG, and intravesical) using PubMed and Cochrane databases. Results: BCG represents the most common intravesical immunotherapeutic agent for the adjuvant treatment of high-risk NMIBC. Its use is associated with a significant reduction of recurrence and progression. Patients with NMIBC of intermediate and high-risk benefit the most from BCG therapy. To achieve maximal efficacy, an induction therapy followed by a maintenance schedule should be used. Full-dose BCG is recommended to obtain ideal antitumoral activity and there is no evidence of a reduction of side effects in patients treated with a reduced dose. There are multiple new approaches and agents in immunotherapy with potential and promising antineoplastic effects. Conclusions: The beneficial effect of BCG is well documented and established. To reduce the tumor specific mortality, it is essential to follow guideline-based treatment. In patients with BCG-failure, there are new promising alternatives other than BCG but BCG remains the gold standard at this stage.

Bladder cancer is the ninth-most prevalent cancer worldwide. Most patients with urothelial cell carcinoma of the bladder present with non-muscle-invasive disease and are treated with bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) intravesical therapy. Many of these patients experience disease recurrence after BCG failure. Radical cystectomy is the recommended treatment for high-risk patients failing BCG. However, many patients are unfit for or unwilling to undergo this procedure. We searched the published literature on the treatment of non-muscle-invasive bladder cancer (NMIBC) after BCG failure. We review current evidence regarding intravesical therapy with gemcitabine, mitomycin combined with thermo-chemotherapy, docetaxel, nab-paclitaxel, photodynamic therapy (PDT), BCG with interferon (IFN), and combination sequentially administered chemotherapy.

Introduction: Non-muscle invasive bladder cancer (NMIBC) represents a broad spectrum of disease, the hallmarks of which include disease recurrence and progression. Clinicians have a number of surgical and therapeutic options at their disposal when treating this disease, and the underlying evidence continues to evolve. A number of professional organizations have invested in the development of clinical practice guidelines to guide patient management. Materials and Methods: We review and summarize four major guidelines, the American Urological Association, the European Association of Urology, the International Consultation on Urological Disease and the National Comprehensive Cancer Network. Results: Guideline panels differed in their composition, methodological approach and structure of recommendations. Despite this, many recommendations were similar between various panels, although differences are present in panel recommendations related to initial diagnosis and treatment, adjuvant therapy and disease surveillance. Conclusions: Guideline recommendations are similar at many decision points that clinicians face when managing NMIBC, although they are far from uniform. While future prospective, well-designed studies will hopefully clarify NMIBC management, urologists ultimately must rely on a combination of evidence-based recommendations, which they should seek to integrate with patients' values and preferences and the individual circumstances to provide the best possible patient care.

Introduction: Although the level of inferior vena cava (IVC) thrombus governs the type of surgical approach, there is no consistency in reporting the levels of IVC thrombus in the literature. This prospective study illustrates a simple three-level classification based on the need for clamping hepatoduodenal ligament and venovenous or cardiopulmonary bypass. Materials and Methods: Between January 2010 and June 2014, 30 patients of renal mass with renal vein and/or IVC thrombus were treated after classifying the IVC thrombus into three levels on the basis of need for clamping the hepatoduodenal ligament. After excluding renal vein thrombi, level I was described as thrombus located caudal to the hepatic vein. Level II included all retrohepatic, suprahepatic infradiaphragmatic or supradiaphragmatic thrombi reaching till the right atrium. Atrial thrombi were categorized as level III. Level I and II thrombi were managed without venovenous or cardiopulmonary bypass. Level III thrombus required cardiopulmonary bypass. Results: Of 26 patients with thrombus, 13 had level I thrombus. Of eight cases with level II thrombus, three were retrohepatic, three were suprahepatic infradiaphragmatic and two were supradiaphragmatic. All were removed successfully. Of five patients with level III thrombus, three were operated with cardiopulmonary bypass while the remaining two patients were too sick to be taken up for surgery. The median hepatoduodenal ligament clamp time was 10 min. One patient with level II thrombus had transient liver enzyme elevation. Conclusion: Renal vein thrombus should not be categorized as level I thrombus. Level II thrombus, irrespective of its relation to the diaphragm, could be managed without venovenous or cardiopulmonary bypass.

Introduction: We aimed to identify peri-operative and pathologic characteristics that may predict the need for clean intermittent catheterization (CIC) following radical cystectomy (RC) with orthotopic neobladder (ONB) in order to improve patient counseling on choice of urinary diversion. Materials and Methods: Between July 2004 and February 2013, all patients who underwent RC with ONB were identified. Peri-operative clinical and pathological features were evaluated and correlated with patients reported need for CIC. The independent T-test was performed for continuous variables and Chi-square test was performed for categorical variables. Multivariate forward stepwise logistic regression analysis was used to identify variables that correlated with need for CIC after ONB. Results: During the study period, 114 patients underwent RC with ONB creation. On univariate analysis, patients with higher body mass index, younger age, and non-vaginal or non-nerve-sparing procedures were more likely to require catheterization for complete emptying. Multivariate analysis demonstrates that conservative surgery (nerve sparing in males or vaginal sparing in females) was associated with a significantly lower rate of requiring CIC (Odds Ratio [OR] 0.20, P < 0.01). Surprisingly, older age was also associated with a slightly lower, but statistically significant, rate of requiring CIC (OR 0.92,P < 0.01). Conclusions: When counseling patients regarding the different types of diversions after RC, the potential need for long-term CIC after ONB must be discussed. The clinical factors that appear to increase the need for CIC include non-conservative RC (non-nerve sparing in males and non-vaginal sparing in females) and, to a certain degree, younger age.

Introduction: The existing literature shows that mesh reinforcement improves the anatomical success rate of cystocele repair. We report the long-term results of a custom bell-shaped mesh with simultaneous urethral support for the repair of cystocele. Materials and Methods: The present study was a single-center, single-surgeon case series of 36 patients. Only patients with Pelvic Organ Prolapse Quantification system (POP-Q) stage 2 and above were included in the study. Patients having rectocele or uterine/vault prolapse were excluded. Body of the mesh was used for reinforcement of the cystocele repair and two limbs were left tension free in the retropubic space. Patients were followed 3 monthly for the first year and yearly thereafter. Recurrence was defined as cystocele ≥stage 2 (Aa or Ba 0) any time after the first follow-up. Results: Mean patient age was 58.5 ± 6.2 years. The mean parity was 3.2 ± 1.6. Of 36 patients, 11 (30.5%) of the patients were POPQ stage 2, 15 (41.7%) were stage 3 and 10 (27.7%) were stage 4 cystocele. The mean follow-up period was 53.4 months, with 32 patients reporting for follow-up till date (88.9%). There was no bladder injury, no mesh erosion or infection. No patient required CIC (clean intermittent catheterization) or had stress urinary incontinence post-operatively at 5 years of follow-up. Conclusion: The bell-shaped mesh is a simple, effective and safe procedure in the surgical management of cystocele with excellent long-term outcome.

Introduction: Concealed penis (CP) may vary in severity and includes megaprepuce (MP) as a variant. Many different surgical strategies have been described in order to maximize penile exposure and to deal with skin deficiency. We describe the strategies that we use to overcome technical problems in severe cases of CP. Materials and Methods: Six consecutive cases of severe CP (including 3 with MP) were treated in a 2-year period between January 2011 and April 2013. These patients were treated using extensive degloving, removal of dysplastic dartos, Alexander's preputial flap, scrotal flaps and skin grafts. Three patients had been previously circumcised. Cases associated with hypospadias, obesity, disorders of sexual differentiation and micropenises were excluded. Results: All six patients attained good results, with good exposure of the penis, ability to void standing with a well-directed flow and reasonable esthetic results. A technical algorithm for the treatment of primary or recurring cases of CP is proposed. Conclusion: Alexander' s distally based ventral preputial flap is a useful technical resource to treat MP cases. Free skin grafts and/or laterally based scrotal flaps may be used to cover the penis after release in severe cases of CP.

Introduction: This study was aimed at analyzing the need for routine use of frozen section analysis (FSA) before performing orthotopic neobladder (ONB) after radical cystectomy for carcinoma urinary bladder. Materials and Methods: A total of 233 patients underwent radical cystectomy from January 2000 to June 2013. Of these, 151 (65.6%) patients were planned for ONB. In the initial 109 (72%) patients, FSA of urethral margin was performed, but, in the subsequent 42 (28%) patients, frozen section of urethral margin was not sent. Impact of hydroureteronephrosis, tumor size and location of tumor in relation to the bladder neck on the status of the urethral margin was analyzed. Results: Only three of the 109 (2.7%) patients had a positive urethral margin. Two of them had ileal conduit and one, after negative re-resection, had ONB. Although none of the factors was found to be significant, all three patients with a positive urethral margin had growth at the bladder neck and died of cancer at a mean follow up of 29.33 ± 18.3 months, without urethral recurrence. Among the negative FSA (106), two patients had recurrence in the penile urethra. The mean follow-up was 46.3 ± 25.1 months. None of the patients without FSA (42) had urethral recurrence at the mean follow-up of 36 ± 9.3 months. Of the 28 patients who had their growth located at the bladder neck, three had positive FSA, while none with growth away from the bladder neck had positive FSA. Conclusion: Routine FSA of the urethra before performing ONB can be avoided in those patients where the tumor does not reach the bladder neck.

Introduction: A conventional urodynamic study (UDS) is considered invasive while uroflowmetry is considered inadequate in the evaluation of children with lower urinary tract dysfunction. The aims of this study were to identify the role of uroflowmetry with electromyography (UFEMG) in this group. Methods: A cohort of 121 children (age 5–12 years; M:F = 2:3) with symptoms of lower urinary tract dysfunction underwent a detailed voiding history and clinical assessment. Those with evidence of neurological abnormality, obstructive uropathy or active urinary tract infection were not included. They were prospectively studied using UFEMG first, followed by UDS on the same day. Results: A total of 76 (63%) children had abnormality on UFEMG while only 12 (10%) had abnormality on UDS. UFEMG was significantly superior in picking up abnormality (P = 0.03). Three types of UFEMG abnormalities were identified: (1) dysfunctional voiding (prolonged staccato trace with active pelvic floor and normal voided volume: n = 42), (2) idiopathic detrusor overactivity (shortened trace with quiet pelvic floor and reduced voided volume: n = 16) and (3) detrusor underutilization disorder (prolonged flat trace with quiet pelvic floor and large voided volume: n = 18). Conclusions: UFEMG is ideal non-invasive test in children with lower urinary tract dysfunction. It helps in identifying the different patterns and the appropriate treatment modality.

Solitary fibrous tumor of the ureter is extremely rare. We describe a case where the polyp was prolapsing into the bladder mimicking a bladder tumor.

A young female presenting with right flank pain, fever, raised creatinine and bilateral hydronephrosis was treated with antibiotics elsewhere, with presumptive diagnosis of bilateral pyelonephritis. She had partial relief in symptoms and her creatinine level showed an improvement. Three months later during evaluation at our center she had anuria, hypertensive crisis and pulmonary edema which were managed with emergency bilateral percutaneous nephrostomies. Cross-sectional imaging and ureteroscopy suggested bilateral synchronous intramural mid-ureteric lesions as underlying pathology. Histopathology of the ureteric segments during laparotomy revealed caseating granulomas suggestive of tuberculosis. This clinical presentation has not been previously described in urinary tuberculosis.

Metastasis to the skeleton is uncommon in muscle-invasive carcinoma of the urinary bladder. When present, it most commonly involves the axial and proximal appendicular skeleton, and acrometastasis (metastasis to hand and foot) is very rare. We report a patient who developed a solitary metastatic lesion of the left metatarsal 2 weeks after radical cystectomy. The lack of suspicion and magnetic resonance imaging findings suggestive of inflammation led to a diagnosis of tubercular osteomyelitis and antitubercular therapy was started. The patient developed nodal metastasis and, because the foot lesion did not respond to treatment, fine needle aspiration cytology from it revealed poorly differentiated metastatic cancer.

Retinoblastoma patients have excellent survival following primary treatment by enucleation, radiotherapy or chemotherapy. Patients receiving chemotherapy or radiotherapy may develop second malignancies years later due to DNA damage or genetic mutations. Urinary bladder leiomyosarcoma is one among them and most such cases have been reported after chemotherapy. We report the third case occurring after isolated radiotherapy.

Diphallus is a rare anomaly and its association with urethral duplication is extremely rare. Numerous associated genitourinary and gastrointestinal anomalies have been reported with this condition. Challenges in the management are incorporation of the glans and the dominant urethra during reconstruction. We report the successful management of a case of glandular diphallus with complete urethral duplication retaining the dorsal urethra.

Retrocaval ureter (pre-ureteral vena cava) is an uncommon congenital anomaly that causes ureteral obstruction by external compression. Although right retrocaval ureter is a common entity, left retrocaval ureter is extremely rare. A left retrocaval ureter is usually associated with situs inversus or duplicated inferior venacava (IVC). An isolated left retrocaval ureter with single left-sided IVC is even rarer and only four cases have been reported in the literature. We present images of a case with isolated left retrocaval ureter with a single left-sided IVC without situs inversus.